People's Republic of China

PRC redirects here. For other uses, see PRC (disambiguation). For the historical and cultural entity, see China. For the pseudo-filesystem in Unix-like systems, see Procfs

The People's Republic of China (PRC; Simplified Chinese: 中华人民共和国, Traditional Chinese: 中華人民共和國; pinyin: Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó listen (help·info)), or China, is a state in East Asia. The PRC is home to over 1.3 billion people, which makes it the most populous country in the world.

Since its founding in 1949, the PRC has been led by the Communist Party of China (CPC) under a one-party system. Though constitutionally a socialist state, the PRC privatized nearly half of its economy in the past three decades under "Socialism with Chinese characteristics." Nonetheless, it retains significant political control over the remaining state-owned enterprises and the banking sector. The PRC is increasingly using macroeconomic controls to promote stable economic development. These economic reforms have succeeded in creating jobs and spurring economic growth although millions of workers were laid off from failing state-owned enterprises. During the 1980s many hundreds of millions of Chinese peasants were lifted out of abject poverty -- a poverty alleviation achievement unmatched in all human history. Urban rather than rural China benefited more from the reforms of the 1990s and the rural/urban income gap rebounded to 3:1 after closing considerably during the 1980s. Greater prosperity led to growing Chinese global influence in economic, political, military, scientific, technological, and cultural affairs.

In an ongoing dispute, the PRC claims sovereignty over Taiwan and some neighboring islands, whose control was never relinquished by the Republic of China. The PRC asserts the Republic of China to be an illegitimate and supplanted entity and administratively categorizes Taiwan as a province of the PRC. The term "mainland China" is sometimes used to denote the area under the PRC's rule, usually excluding the two Special Administrative Regions, Hong Kong and Macau.

Terminology

The name New China has been frequently applied to China as a positive term by the Communist Party as a political and social term contrasting China before 1949 (the establishment of the PRC) and the new socialist state, and sometimes used by writers outside mainland China. The PRC has also been known (mainly in the Cold War era), as Communist China and somewhat disparagingly as Red China, to distinguish it from the ROC on Taiwan (once known as Nationalist China or Free China). In some contexts, particularly in economics, trade, and sporting, "China" is often used to refer to mainland China to the exclusion of Hong Kong and Macau.

History

Main articles: History of China, History of the People's Republic of China, and Timeline of Chinese history

After World War II, the Chinese Civil War between the Communist Party of China and the Kuomintang ended in 1949 with the Communists in control of mainland China and the Kuomintang in control of Taiwan and some outlying islands of Fujian. On October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong emphatically declared the People's Republic of China, establishing a communist state, and proclaiming "the Chinese people have stood up."

Supporters of the Maoist Era claim that under Mao, China's unity and sovereignty was assured for the first time in a century, and there was development of infrastructure, industry, healthcare, and education, which raised standard of living for the average Chinese. They also believe that campaigns such as the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution were essential in jumpstarting China's development and purifying its culture. More nuanced arguments claim that though the consequences of both these campaigns were economically and humanly disastrous, they left behind a "clean slate" on which later economic progress could be built. Supporters may also doubt statistics or accounts given for death tolls or other damages incurred by Mao's campaigns. Some, including Mao at the time, attributed the high death toll to natural disasters; still others doubt this figure entirely, or claim that many more people died due to famine or other consequences of political chaos during the rule of Chiang Kai-Shek.

Critics of Mao's regime assert that Mao's administration imposed strict controls over everyday life, and believe that campaigns such as the Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution contributed to or caused millions of deaths, incurred severe economic costs, and damaged China's cultural heritage. The Great Leap Forward in particular preceded a massive famine in China which, according to numbers estimated by credible Western and Eastern sources[1], 20–30 million people died; most Western and many Chinese analysts attribute this to poor agricultural and economic planning during the Great Leap Forward.

Following the dramatic economic failures of the early 1960s, Mao stepped down from his position as chairman of the People's Republic. The National People's Congress elected Liu Shaoqi as Mao's successor. Mao remained head of the Party but was removed from day to day management of economic affairs which came under the control of a more moderate leadership under the dominant influence of Liu Shaoqi, Deng Xiaoping and others who initiated economic reforms.

In 1966, Mao launched the Cultural Revolution, which is viewed by his opponents (including both Western analysts and many Chinese people who were youth at the time) as a strike back at his rivals by mobilizing the youth of the country in support of his thought and purging the moderate leadership. This was viewed by his supporters as an experiment in direct democracy and a genuine attempt at purging Chinese society of corruption and other negative influences. Mao's personality cult at the time and the relatively hierarchical, top-down structure of the "Red Guard" tend to contradict this interpretation, however, as did the economic reconstruction needed in China after these events. Extreme disorder followed but gradually under the leadership of Zhou Enlai moderate forces regained influence.

After Mao's death in 1976, Deng Xiaoping, seen as the the leader of the economic reformers, quickly wrested power from Mao's anointed successor Hua Guofeng, although Deng never himself became Party Secretary or State Chairman. Mao's widow, Jiang Qing and her associates, the Gang of Four, who had had governed in the name of Mao, were arrested and put on trial. Under Deng Xiaoping's pragmatic rule, exemplified by his favorite sayings "It doesn't matter if a cat is yellow or black as long as it catches mice" and "Feeling for the rocks as we cross the river", the Communist Party greatly loosened governmental control over people's personal lives. The People's Communes were disbanded. Peasants received multiple year land leases that greatly increased incentives and agricultural production. China began its transition from a planned economy into a mixed economy. The PRC adopted its current constitution on December 4, 1982.

Supporters of the economic reforms point to the rapid development of the consumer and export sectors of the economy, the creation of an urban middle class that now constitutes 15% of the population, higher living standards (which is shown via dramatic increases in GDP per capita, consumer spending, life expectancy, literacy rate, and total grain output) and a much wider range of personal rights and freedoms for average Chinese as evidence of the success of the reforms.

Critics of the economic reforms, both in China and abroad, claim that the reforms have caused wealth disparity, environmental pollution, rampant corruption, widespread unemployment associated with layoffs at inefficient state-owned enterprises, and has introduced often unwelcome cultural influences. Consequently they believe that China's culture has been corrupted, the poor have been reduced to a hopeless abject underclass, and that the social stability is threatened. They are also of the opinion that various political reforms, such as moves towards popular elections, have been unfairly nipped in the bud. Regardless of either view, today, the public perception of Mao has improved at least superficially; images of Mao and Mao related objects have become fashionable, commonly used on novelty items and by Chinese indie rock bands. However, the path of modernization and market-oriented economic reforms that China started since the early 1980s appears to be fundamentally unchallenged. Even critics of China's market reforms do not wish to see a backtrack of these two decades of reforms, but rather propose corrective measures to offset some of the social issues caused by existing reforms.

Despite market reforms, the Communist Party of China remains in control, requires the registration and supervisions of all civic organizations. The CPC suppresses groups seen as threats, such as Falun Gong and the separatist movement in Tibet. Supporters of these policies claim that these policies safeguard stability in a society that is torn apart by class differences and rivalries, has no tradition of civil participation, and limited rule of law. Opponents of these policies claim that these policies severely violate norms of human rights that the international community recognizes, and further claim that this results in a police state, which creates an atmosphere of fear and ignorance.

In 1989, the death of pro-reform official Hu Yaobang led to the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, during which students and others held protests in Beijing's Tiananmen Square and elsewhere to campaign for democratic reform and freedom. The protests ended on June 3 - June 4 when PLA troops entered the square, killing hundreds. The event brought worldwide condemnation and sanctions against the PRC government. The PRC government itself has since remained relatively silent on the issue, though it has also defended itself by saying that it was necessary for the continued stability and economic development of the country.

President Jiang Zemin and Premier Zhu Rongji, both former Shanghai mayors, led post-Tiananmen China during the 1990s, bringing unprecedented wealth and international standing to the country. Under Jiang Zemin's ten years of administration, China lifted 150 million people out of poverty, laid off millions of state-enterprise employees, sustained an average annual GDP growth rate of 11.2% and formally joined the WTO in 2001 [2] [3]. Obtaining greater economic development and market reform remains the primary goal for the current government under President Hu Jintao and Premier Wen Jiabao.

Geography and climate

Main article: Geography of China

The PRC is the largest country in area in East Asia (excluding Russia) and the third largest in the world by land-and-sea area. (However, some other countries disagree about certain Chinese borders. Among these is the United States of America which disputes said borders and believes itself to be the third largest.) It borders 14 nations (counted clockwise from south): Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar (commonly known as Burma), India, Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan^[4], Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Russia, Mongolia and North Korea.

The PRC contains a large variety of landscapes. In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea, are found extensive and densely populated alluvial plains; the shore of the South China Sea is more mountainous and southern China is dominated by hill country and lower mountain ranges. In the central-east are found the deltas of China's two major rivers, the Huang He and Yangtze River (Chang Jiang). Other major rivers include the Xijiang River, Mekong, Brahmaputra and Amur.

To the west, major mountain ranges, notably the Himalaya with China's highest point Mount Everest, and high plateaus feature among the more arid landscape of deserts such as the Taklamakan and the Gobi Desert.

Barrier tree lines adjacent in desert lands planted since the 1970s reduced the frequency of sandstorms, although prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices dust storms still produce dust storms and sometimes mud rain each spring. According to China's Environmental Protection Agency, the Gobi Desert has been expanding "like a tsunami" and is a major source of dust storms which affect Mainland China and other parts of northeast Asia such as Taiwan, Korea and Japan. Dust from the northern plains has been tracked to the West Coast of the United States. River management (human waste dumping, factory pollution, and water extraction for irrigation and drinking) and dust erosion are problems affecting other countries that have become recent important concerns for relations between China and its neighboring countries.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of mainland China

Population: 1,298,847,624 (July 2004 est.)

Age structure:
0-14 years: 22.3% (male 153,401,051; female 135,812,993)
15-64 years: 70.3% (male 469,328,664; female 443,248,860)
65 years and over: 7.5% (male 46,308,923; female 50,747,133) (2005 est.)

Population growth rate: 0.57% (2004 est.)

Ethnic groups

The People's Republic of China (PRC) officially recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, the largest of which are Han Chinese, who constitute about 91.9% of the total population. Large ethnic minorities include the Zhuang (16 million), Manchu (10 million), Hui (9 million), Miao (8 million), Uyghur (7 million), Yi (7 million), Tujia (5.75 million), Mongolian (5 million), Tibetan (5 million), Buyi (3 million), and Korean (2 million).

Population Policy

With a population of over 1.3 billion and an estimated growth rate of 0.57%, the PRC is very concerned about its population growth and has attempted with mixed results to implement a strict family planning policy. The government's goal is one child per family, with exceptions in rural areas (in many areas if the first child is a girl, the family may have a second child) and for ethnic minorities. Official government policy opposes forced abortion or sterilization, but allegations of coercion continue as some local officials faced with penalties if they fail to control population growth violate central government policy, falsify population counts reported upwards, or both.

The decreasing reliability of PRC population statistics since family planning began in the late 1970s has made evaluating the effectiveness of the policy difficult. Estimates by Chinese demographers of the average number of children a Chinese women (the total fertility rate) vary from 1.5 to 2.0. The increasing imbalance in the male/female sex ratio at birth, apparently the result of combination of the traditional preference for boys, family planning pressure and the wide availability of ultrasound fetal sex determination technology, concerns Chinese leaders and led to a ban on the use of ultrasound for the purpose of fetal sex selection. The government's goal is to stabilize the population and population growth early in the 21st century, although some current projections estimate a population of anywhere ranging from 1.4 billion to 1.6 billion by 2025.

Politics

Main article: Politics of the People's Republic of China

In the technical terminology of political science the PRC was a communist state for much of the 20th century, and is still considered a communist state by many, though not all political scientists agree. Attempts to characterize the nature of China's political structure into a single, simple category are typically seen as lacking sufficient depth to be satisfactory. A major reason for this is China's political history: for over two thousand years, prior to 1949, the state had been ruled by some form of centralized imperial monarchy with strong Confucian influences, which have left significant traces on subsequent political and social structures. This was followed by a chaotic succession of largely authoritarian Chinese Nationalist governments as well as warlord-held administration since the first Chinese Revolution of 1912.

The PRC regime has variously been described as authoritarian, communist, socialist and various combinations of those terms. It has also been described as a communist government. This may be called state capitalist by some. It appears China is slowly becoming capitalist in its economic system. China recently released an official statement on its political structure, upholding the notion that the state should be ruled by democratic means. Personal freedoms have grown considerably since the early days of Communist rule. However, heavy restrictions remain in some areas, most notably internet censorship and freedom of the press.

The government of the PRC is controlled by the Chinese Communist Party (CPC). There are some other political parties in PRC, called "democratic parties". However they are very closely associated with the CPC. These minor parties participate in the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference but mostly serve to endorse CPC policies. While there have been some moves toward political liberalization, in that open contested elections are now held at the village level and legislatures have shown some assertiveness from time to time, the party retains effective control over governmental appointments. While the state uses authoritarian methods to deal with challenges to its rule, it simultaneously attempts to reduce dissent by improving the economy, allowing expression of personal grievances, and giving lenient treatment to persons expressing dissent whom the regime does not believe are organizers.

Censorship of political speech and information is openly and routinely used to protect what the government claims to be national security interests, including internet censorship. The government has a policy of suppressing any protests and organizations that it considers a threat to its power, as was the case after the Tiananmen Square protests. However, there are limits to the repression that the Party is willing or able to achieve. The media have become increasingly active in publicizing social problems and exposing corruption and inefficiency at lower levels of government, although recently the PRC has tended to increase crackdowns on reporters. The Party has also been rather unsuccessful at controlling information, and in some cases has had to change policies in response to public outrage. Although organized opposition against the Party is not tolerated, demonstrations over local issues are frequent and increasingly tolerated.

The support that the Communist Party of China has among the Chinese population is unclear, as there are no national elections, and private conversations and anecdotal information often reveal conflicting views. Many in China appear to appreciate the role that the government plays in maintaining social stability, which has allowed the economy to grow without interruption. Political concerns in China include the growing gap between rich and poor in the PRC, and the growing discontent with widespread corruption within the leadership and officials.

Human rights debates

Main article Human rights in the People's Republic of China

The PRC is sometimes under criticism from Western governments and NGOs concerning allegations of lengthy detention without trial, forced confessions, torture, and mistreatment of prisoners as well as allegations of restrictions on freedoms of speech, the press, assembly, association, religion, and workers' rights, as being violations of their definition of human rights. They argue these alleged violations stem from the PRC government's intolerance of dissent and the inadequacy of legal safeguards for individual political rights.

The PRC government argues that the notion of human rights should include economic standards of living and measures of health and economic prosperity. It views the rise in the standard of living of the Chinese people as an indicator of improvement of the human rights situation.

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of the People's Republic of China

The People's Republic of China maintains diplomatic relations with most countries in the world, but makes acknowledging its claim to Taiwan and severing any official ties with the Republic of China (ROC) government a prerequisite for diplomatic exchanges. It actively opposes foreign travels by current and former political officials of Taiwan, such as Lee Teng-hui and Chen Shui-bian, and other persons it sees politically dangerous, such as Tenzin Gyatso (considering Tibet) and Li Hongzhi (considering Falun Gong).

In 1974, the PRC replaced the Republic of China as the sole representative for "China" in the United Nations and as one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council; it is also considered a founding member although the PRC was not in control at the founding of the UN. (See China and the United Nations)

It was for a time a member and leader of the Non-Aligned Movement, but now is an observer. Much of the current foreign policy is based on the concept of China's peaceful rise. Sino-Japanese relations have been strained several times in the past few decades by Japan's refusal to acknowledge its past war crimes and violations to Chinese satisfaction, most notable among which is the Nanjing Massacre. Recent incidents with the United States include the United States bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade during the Kosovo conflict in May 1999, alleged Chinese involvement in nuclear secrets espionage reported in the U.S. Cox Report, China's involvement in the 1996 U.S. campaign finance scandal, as well as the U.S.-China spy plane incident in April 2001.

Some NGOs and Western governments have criticized China for alleged human rights abuses and its foreign relations with many Western Nations suffered following the Tiananmen Square Incident in 1989.

In addition to Taiwan, China is involved in several other territorial disputes. The PRC makes all of these claims on irredentist grounds, while the opposing claimants tend towards viewing irredentism as a baseless ideology or view the PRC as being motivated by resources, military considerations, or nationalism considerations:

In 2001, the PRC and Russia signed the Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation. In 2004, Russia agreed to transfer Yinlong Island as well as one half of Heixiazi Island to China, ending a long-standing border dispute between Russia and China. Both islands are found at the confluence of the Amur and Ussuri Rivers, and were until then administered by Russia and claimed by China. The event was meant to foster feelings of reconciliation and cooperation between the two countries by their leaders, but it has also sparked different degrees of discontents on both sides. The transfer has been ratified by both the Chinese National People's Congress and the Russian State Duma but has yet to be carried out to date.

Outside official opinion, it is popular for nationalists to make irredentist claims to Mongolia, Tuva and Outer Manchuria, as well as (less commonly) the Ryukyu Islands, Bhutan, the Hukawng Valley in northern Myanmar, and Central Asia southeast of Lake Balkhash.

In 1997, the ASEAN member nations and the People's Republic of China, South Korea and Japan agreed to hold yearly talks to further strengthen regional cooperation, the ASEAN Plus Three meetings. In 2005 the ASEAN plus Three countries together with India, Australia and New Zealand held the inaugural East Asia Summit (EAS).

Military

Main article: People's Liberation Army

The PRC maintains a national military called the People's Liberation Army, consisting of its army, navy, air force, and strategic nuclear forces. Its 2.25 million strong force makes it the largest military in the world, in terms of number of troops. The People's Liberation Army's official budget for 2005 is $30 billion, possibly excluding foreign weapons purchases, military-related research and development and the paramilitary People's Armed Police and other expenses.

The PRC, despite possession of nuclear weapons and delivery systems, is widely seen both within and outside of China as having only limited ability to project military power beyond its borders and is not generally considered to be a true superpower, although it is widely seen as a major regional power. This is due to the limited effectiveness of its navy, such as lacking aircraft carriers, and air-force, which is large but generally considered obsolete by Western standards.

The PRC continues to make efforts to modernize its military. It has purchased state-of-the-art fighter jets from Russia, such as Su-27s and Su-30s, and has produced its own relatively modern fighters, specifically the J-10. It has also acquired Russian S-300 Surface-to-Air missile systems, which are widely considered to be among the best aircraft-intercepting systems in the world. The PRC's armoured and rapid-reaction forces have been updated with enhanced electronics and targeting capabilities. In recent years, much attention has been focused on building a navy with blue-water capability.

Political Divisions

Main article: Political divisions of China

The People's Republic of China has administrative control over 22 provinces (省); the government of the People's Republic of China considers Táiwān (台湾), which is actually controlled by the Republic of China, to be its 23rd province. (See Political status of Taiwan for more information.) Apart from provinces there are 5 autonomous regions (自治区) containing concentrations of several minorities; 4 municipalities (直辖市) for China's largest cities and 2 Special Administrative Regions (SAR) (特别行政区), which are governed by the PRC but enjoy considerable autonomy.

The 22 provinces, 5 autonomous regions and 4 municipalities can be collectively referred to as "mainland China", a term which usually excludes Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan.

The following are a list of administrative divisions of areas under the control of the People's Republic of China.

Largest cities

.]]

The PRC has dozens of major cities, including 3 of the 55 global cities.

(All the Chinese given above in this section are in simplified Chinese character.)

Economy

Main article: Economy of the People's Republic of China

Beginning in late 1978 the Chinese leadership has been reforming the economy from a Soviet-style centrally planned economy to a more market-oriented economy but still within a rigid political framework of Communist Party control. To this end the authorities have switched to a system of household responsibility in agriculture in place of the old collectivization, increased the authority of local officials and plant managers in industry, permitted a wide variety of small-scale enterprise in services and light manufacturing, and opened the economy to increased foreign trade and investment. Price controls were also relaxed. This has resulted in mainland China's shift from a command economy to a mixed economy with both communist and capitalist tendencies. China has been a member of the World Trade Organization since 2001.

The government has tended to not emphasize equality as when it first began and instead emphasized raising personal income and consumption and introducing new management systems to help increase productivity. The government also has focused on foreign trade as a major vehicle for economic growth, for which purpose it set up 5 Special Economic Zones (SEZ: Shenzhen, Zhuhai, Shantou, Xiamen, Hainan Province) where investment laws are relaxed in order to attract foreign capital. The result has been a 6-fold increase of GDP since 1978. Chinese economic development is among the fastest in the world, and has been growing at an average annual GDP rate of 9.4% for the past 25 years [6]. At the end of 2005, the PRC became the fourth largest economy in the world by exchange rate, and the second largest in the world after the United States by purchasing power parity at US$8,158 trillion [7]. But with its large population this still gives an average GDP per person of only an estimated US$6,200, about 1/7th that of the United States.

Mainland China has a reputation as being a low-cost manufacturer, particularly due to its abundant non-unionised inexpensive labor. An unskilled worker at a Chinese factory in the rural area costs a company under $1/hour; however, the prices of goods and services in China are lower than in more developed countries. Furthermore, many Chinese workers do not join trade unions. Employers may find this helpful as labor relations are different in most other parts of the world. A possible reason for this could be work ethics, but it is also conceivable that the low union membership is driven by a fear that unions will be abused by the Communist Party of China to identify dissidents. (See list of Chinese dissidents.) Another aspect of the Chinese economy that is often overlooked is the low cost of non labor inputs. This is due in part to an overly competitive environment with many producers and a general tendency towards an oversupply and low prices. There is also the continued existence of price controls and supply guarantees left over from the former Soviet style command economy. As State owned enterprises continue to be dismantled and workers shift to higher productivity sectors, this deflationary effect will continue to put pressure on prices in the economy.

Preferential tax incentives are also given as a direct fiscal incentive to manufacture in China, whether for export or for the local market of 1.3 billion. China is attempting to harmonize the system of taxes and duties it imposes on enterprises, domestic and foreign alike. As a result, preferential tax and duty policies that benefit exporters in special economic zones and coastal cities have been targeted for revision.

China's high growth in the global markets has caused notable disputes, especially the trade imbalance with the United States. The discrepancy is largely attributed to the fact that Chinese corporations can produce many products desired in the US far more cheaply than other parts of Asia or Latin America, and expensive products produced in America are in large part uncompetitive compared to European or Asian goods. Another factor cited by some people was the unfavorable exchange rate between the Chinese yuan and the United States dollar to which it used to be pegged. On July 21, 2005 the People's Bank of China announced that it would move to a floating peg (managed float), allowing its currency to move against the United States dollar by 0.3% a day. The yuan's trading band against other currencies is 3% a day. Many high tech American companies have difficulty exporting to China due to federal government restrictions. This may also have contributed to the widening trade gap between the 2 countries. With the elimination of clothing quotas, China stands to take over a large chunk of the worldwide textile industry. [8] [9]

The disparity in wealth between the coastal strip and the remainder of the country remains wide. To counter this potentially destabilizing problem, the government has initiated the China Western Development strategy (2000), the Revitalize Northeast China initiative (2003), and the Rise of Central China policy (2004), which are all aimed at helping the interior of China to catch up. The map on the right shows the economic regions of Mainland China covered under these strategies.

See also: Potential Superpowers - China

Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology in China

After the Sino-Soviet split, China started to develop its own indigenous nuclear deterrent and delivery systems. A natural outgrowth of this was a satellite launching program. This culminated in 1970 with the launching of Dong Fang Hong I, the first Chinese satellite. This made the PRC the fifth nation to independently launch a satellite.

In 1992 the current "Project 921" manned spaceflight program was authorized. On 19 November 1999, the unmanned Shenzhou 1 was launched, the first test flight of the program. After three more tests, Shenzhou 5 was launched on October 15, 2003, using a Long March 2F rocket and carrying Yang Liwei, making the PRC the third country to put a human being into space through its own endeavors. The second mission, Shenzhou 6 launched 12 October 2005. The country also pursues to build Chinese Space Station in the near future. Some see China's space program as a response to the United States Air Force's efforts to militarize space.

China is actively developing in fields such as biotechnology, biomedicine, information technology, urban infrastructure and electronics.

Transportation

Main articles: Transportation in the People's Republic of China, Transportation in Hong Kong, and Transportation in Macau

Transportation in the mainland of the People's Republic of China has improved remarkably starting in the late 1990s as part of a government effort to link the entire nation through a series of expressways known as the National Trunk Highway System. Private car ownership is increasing but remains uncommon, in large part due to government policies designed to make car ownership expensive through the use of taxes and toll roads.

Air travel has increased considerably, although remains out of reach for most ordinary mainland Chinese. Long distance transportation for most mainland Chinese is still dominated by the railways and bus systems.

Cities are increasingly building underground or light rail systems, such as in Shanghai. Hong Kong has one of the most modern transport systems in the world.

Culture

Main article: Culture of China

China's traditional values were derived from the orthodox version of Confucianism/conservatism, which was taught in schools and was even part of imperial civil service examinations. However, the term Confucianism is somewhat problematic in that the system of thought which reached its high-water mark in Qing Dynasty imperial China was in fact composed of several strains of thought, including Legalism, which in many ways departed from the original spirit of Confucianism; indeed by the height of imperial China, the right of the individual ethical conscience and the right to criticise tyrannical governments and demand change had largely been prohibited by "orthodox" thinkers. Currently, there are neo-Confucians who believe that contrary to that line of thought, democratic ideals and human rights are quite compatible with traditional Confucian "Asian values". See [10]

The leaders who directed the efforts to change Chinese society after the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949 were raised in the old society and had been marked with its values. PRC leaders sought to change some traditional aspects, such as rural land tenure, sexism, and Confucian education, while preserving others, such as the family structure. Some observers believe that the Communist period following 1949 is very much in continuity with traditional Chinese history, rather than revolutionary.

On the other hand, some observers believe that the Communist period following 1949 has fundamentally altered or damaged the foundations of Chinese culture. At various times in the history of the PRC, many aspects of traditional Chinese culture were labeled 'regressive and harmful' or 'vestiges of feudalism' by the regime or by prominent movements (e.g. by the Red Guards during the Cultural Revolution), such as Confucianism, traditional art, literature, and performing arts; for example, Beijing opera was "reformed" to conform to communist propaganda. The brutality of the Cultural Revolution itself has also been described as destructive to China's traditional moral values. The institution of the Simplified Chinese orthography reform is controversial as well, with some considering it harmless, and others viewing it as an assault on Chinese culture. However, China has since moved away from attempting to reform all of its traditional art forms. As time has progressed, the PRC government has accepted much of traditional Chinese culture as an integral part of Chinese society; current Chinese national policy often lauds these as important achievements of the Chinese civilization and emphasizes them as being integral to the formation of Chinese national identity. The PRC has also promoted feelings of nationalism in recent years, regarded by some observers as an effort to provide legitimacy for its rule.

Language

Main article: Languages of China

Standard Chinese or Mandarin (Putonghua, based on the Beijing dialect); Wu (Shanghainese); Yue (Cantonese); Minbei (Fuzhou); Minnan (Hokkien-Taiwanese); Xiang; Gan; Hakka dialects; and minority languages (see Ethnic groups entry).

There are seven major Chinese dialects and many sub dialects which are considered part of the Chinese language. Mandarin (or Putonghua), the predominant dialect, is spoken by over 70% of the population. It is taught in all schools and is the medium of government. About two-thirds of the Han ethnic group are native speakers of Mandarin; the rest, concentrated in southwest and southeast China, speak one of the six other major Chinese dialects. Non-Chinese languages spoken widely by ethnic minorities include Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur and other Turkic languages (in Xinjiang), and Korean (in the northeast).

Religion

Main article: Religion in China

The majority of Chinese are non-religious. According to the World Desk Reference by D K Publishing, the non-religious in China constitute about 59% of the population, or about 767 million people. However, religion plays a significant part in the life of some Chinese, especially the traditional beliefs of Confucianism and Taoism. About 33% of the population follow a mixture of beliefs usually referred to by statisticians as "Traditional Beliefs" or just "Other".

About 6% of Chinese people are avowed Buddhists. Mahayana Buddhism and Zen Buddhism are most widely practiced. With an estimated 100 million adherents, it is the largest religiuous group in the country. Theravada Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism are practiced largely by ethnic minorities along the geographic fringes of the Chinese mainland. Official figures indicate there are 18 million (mostly Sunni) Muslims, 4 million Catholics, and 10 million Protestants; estimates by outside followers of these beliefs for all three demographic groups are much higher.

Sports

Main article: Sports in China

Popular Sports

China has one of the oldest sporting cultures in the world, spanning the course of several millennia. The following is a list of some of the predominant sports in the PRC.

Table Tennis - Ping pang qiu ( 乒乓球) is the official name for ping pong or table tennis in China. China has consistently been one of the best ping pong playing nations in the world and is home to what many consider to be the greatest player of all time, Deng Yaping.

Soccer - Soccer (or football) is another widely popular sport in China. A form of soccer was played in China some 10,000 years ago. It achieved extreme popularity around 2,000 years ago when the game transformed from a more hands-on style of play to being played primarily by kicking. The earliest form of soccer was known as 'caju', literally meaning 'to kick ball', played with a leather ball full of hair. Today, international soccer is seeing a resurgence in popularity. However, due to the scarcity of large, open areas, it remains mostly a spectator sport in the urban areas.

Basketball - Because of the low infrastructure requirement, basketball is a popular sport participated in by young people, especially young men and boys. The American NBA games have a huge fan base in China, partly because of the participation of Yao Ming, who plays for the Houston Rockets.

Golf - Golf is an emerging game in China, and is seen by some as a status symbol. Several retired CPC leaders are known to be keen golfers. A form of golf, involving hitting balls into holes in the ground with a stick, had been played in China for at least 700 years.

Martial Arts - Hundreds of different styles of Chinese martial arts have developed over the past two thousand years, many distinct with their own sets of techniques and ideas. Martial arts schools are a common sight in China, some focusing on the popular sport of wushu and others that teach the many traditional styles such as northern and southern Shaolin and Tai Chi Chuan.

Traditional Sports - Many traditional sports are still played. In Inner Mongolia traditional sports such as Mongolian-style wrestling and horse racing are popular. In Tibet, archery and equestrian sports are a part of traditional festivals. Dragon boat racing occurs during the Duan Wu festival.

Performance at international games

China has also done well in recent Olympic Games, particularly the summer games, in 2004 China was second in the gold medal tally, and third in total medals with 63 (32 gold, 17 silver and 14 bronze). For details see China at the Olympics. Beijing is set to host the 2008 Summer Olympics. In the Winter Olympics, China has performed well in speed skating and figure skating. The Chinese national women's ice hockey team is highly ranked in world competitions.

China also participated in the 2006 World Baseball Classic. It was eliminated after losing its first three games.

Miscellaneous topics

Main article: List of China-related topics

Further reading

Dictionary definitions from Wiktionary

Textbooks from Wikibooks

 Quotations from Wikiquote

 Source texts from Wikisource

 Images and media from Commons

 News stories from Wikinews

• Ross Terrill, The New Chinese Empire: And What It Means for the United States, Basic Books, hardcover, 400 pages, ISBN 0465084125
• Roads Murphey, East Asia: A New History, U. of Michigan Press: 1996.

Notes

1. ↑  China's border with Pakistan falls in the disputed Kashmir province. The area under Pakistani-administration is claimed by India.

References

• CIA World Factbook 2002/2004
• Background Note: China U.S. Department of State website

External links

• China.org.cn China's Official Gateway
• www.gov.cn China's Government Portal
• Chinese Central, Provincial and City governments

af:Volksrepubliek van Sjina als:Volksrepublik China ang:Folces Lēodþing Cīnan ar:الصين ast:China bg:Китайска народна република zh-min-nan:Tiong-hoâ Jîn-bîn Kiōng-hô-kok be:Кітай bs:Narodna Republika Kina ca:República Popular de la Xina cv:Китай chr:ᏥᎾ cs:Čínská lidová republika cy:Gweriniaeth Pobl China da:Folkerepublikken Kina de:Volksrepublik China el:Λαϊκή Δημοκρατία της Κίνας es:República Popular China eo:Ĉinio eu:Txina fr:République populaire de Chine gl:China - 中国 got:𐌺𐌹𐌽𐌰 gu:ચીન ko:중화인민공화국 hr:Kina io:Chinia id:Republik Rakyat Tiongkok ia:China is:Alþýðulýðveldið Kína it:Cina he:הרפובליקה העממית של סין kk:Қытай ku:Çîn la:Respublica Populi Sinarum lv:Ķīna lt:Kinija jbo:jungug hu:Kína mk:Кина ms:Republik Rakyat China mn:Бүгд Найрамдах Хятад Ард Улс nah:Xina nl:Volksrepubliek China nds:Volksrepubliek China ja:中華人民共和国 no:Folkerepublikken Kina nn:Folkerepublikken Kina os:Китай pl:Chińska Republika Ludowa pt:República Popular da China ro:Republica Populară Chineză ru:Китай simple:People's Republic of China sk:Čínska ľudová republika sl:Kitajska sr:Народна Република Кина fi:Kiina sv:Kina tl:Tsina ta:சீன மக்கள் குடியரசு th:สาธารณรัฐประชาชนจีน vi:Cộng hòa Nhân dân Trung Hoa tr:Çin Halk Cumhuriyeti uk:Китай yi:כינע za:Cunghvaz Yinzminz Gunghozgoz zh:中华人民共和国